P. Gorazd Cetkovský, O.Carm.
Since the beginning of the renewal of the third order in our country after 1990, we have been striving to ensure that participation in the third order of tertiaries does not disrupt the community of the local church and does not divert from involvement in the parish or from belonging to the diocese. The theme I would like to present to you now stands nicely at the intersection of two areas of focus: preparation for the jubilee of the arrival of St. Cyril and Methodius to our ancestors, associated with the "year of baptism", and at the same time the constant attention of us Carmelites to the figure of the prophet Elijah, an important source of our spiritual inspiration. The main guide we will adhere to will be the book Bibel und Liturgie, authored by Jean Danielou, published in Munich in 1963 (more precisely, one of its chapters).
But let us start a bit broadly...
The core of the Christian faith and baptism as its affirmation
The foundation of our Christian faith is the event of Jesus' resurrection as the culmination of His entire life. By accepting baptism, we reaffirm our faith in Jesus as the Son of God, as the Savior – Christ. A Christian does not strive to please God by keeping the Mosaic law, but to participate in the death and resurrection of Christ, in the life of Christ. How? By faith, love in the Holy Spirit. By participating in the community of the Church, in union with Christ and the Church through the Eucharist and the sacraments in general. And also by participating in the blessedness of those who "hear the word of God and keep it" (Lk 11:28).
Was it necessary for the Christian Church to take over the Old Testament?
The question is posed too philosophically; it is certain that historically it happened. Jesus Himself honored the Scriptures of the Old Testament, saying of them, "the Scripture cannot be broken" (John 10:35). Thus, even though the central significance for the faith of the Church lies in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, it was factually unthinkable to simply set aside the Scriptures of the Old Testament. On the contrary, the early Church used them in its catechesis, and they represented a great benefit for it. The Old Testament provided it with concepts and expressions to capture and deepen the understanding of the content of the New Testament Revelation. The entire religious experience and the spiritual and moral life of Christians (most of whom converted to Christianity from paganism) were understood and expressed through biblical thinking and speech.
The Old Testament was also understood allegorically
Even in later times, the Church Fathers in antiquity primarily engaged with the interpretation of the Scriptures, mainly the Old Testament. They understood the New Testament directly, while the Old Testament required interpretation. They viewed it and explained its texts primarily allegorically, in a metaphorical sense. As we will see below, they learned this from the New Testament scriptures.
The leading personality in this regard was Origen, along with the Alexandrian catechetical school. According to their conviction, every place in the Old Testament has its allegorical meaning and it is necessary to recognize it and learn from it. They considered it foolishness to be satisfied with the primary meaning of biblical texts and not to seek the spiritual meaning. (On another occasion, we talked this year about how the psalms for them primarily represented songs about Christ, His words, or the words of the Church in relation to Him.)
Christians approached the Old Testament with the proud conviction that it is their sacred scriptures, for they are the true Israel. The Old Testament and the New Testament form a unity, and we can truly understand even the Scriptures of the Old Testament only we, who have been granted not to remain merely at the type and preparation, but to receive Him whom "the Father has sent" (John 5:36, etc.) and who is the fulfillment of the history of salvation and the Word of God.
"Classical" prefigurations of baptism from the Old Testament
As we have already said, the whole content of faith and the spiritual experience of the early Church were understood through biblical thinking and expressed in biblical images and language. Therefore, the acceptance of salvation, baptism, administered at Easter as a sign of acceptance of participation in the mystery of Christ, in His death and resurrection, was contemplated and explained against the backdrop of certain events from the Old Testament that serve as easily understandable prefigurations of salvation. The most important of them are creation, the flood, and the crossing of the Red Sea.1
However, these prefigurations were not invented by the Church Fathers; they were found already in the texts of the New Testament. Even St. Paul, without using the term prefiguration, says of the Christian that he is "a new creation" (2 Cor 5:17). The flood as a prefiguration of baptism is mentioned in 1 Peter 3:20-21. And the crossing of the Red Sea is also mentioned as a prefiguration in the New Testament, in 1 Corinthians 10:1-6. Paul does speak of the prefiguration as a warning, but in verses 1-2 and 4 links the crossing of the Red Sea and the baptism in Moses2 with Christ. Even today, the prayer during the blessing of the water for baptism, as stated in the rites of the great night (and baptismal rites in general), makes reference to these three events from the Old Testament period.
Almighty, eternal God,
Your invisible power acts,
so that the sacraments are a visible sign of your grace.
You created water
and, on various occasions, showed
that its effects signify our baptism.
Even at the beginning, when Your Spirit hovered over the waters,
You, God, placed life and blessing in the water.
And when in the floods of the flood You destroyed sin,
the water became a sign of new righteousness and new life.
When You brought Your people from the Egyptian bondage through the Red Sea,
You thought of those who will be baptized.
And when Your Son was baptized in the water of the Jordan,
You anointed Him with the Holy Spirit...
Thus, after three Old Testament prefigurations, Jesus' baptism in the Jordan is mentioned, then the bursting of water from the pierced side of Christ on the cross, and finally the command of the Risen Lord to the apostles: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit..." (Mt 28:19).
These three Old Testament prefigurations of baptism are also mentioned in the Catechism of the Catholic Church in articles 1217-1221. According to it, these texts place baptism in this light: baptism is a new creation, fulfilling the life-giving Spirit. Just as in the waters of the flood, so in the baptismal water, God justly destroys sin and begins a new stage of life for His creatures. Just as the crossing of the Red Sea, so baptism is a way of salvation, survival, and liberation.
Let us bear in mind that at that time, baptism concerned adults and took the form of immersing the whole person in the baptismal spring. It was an act – just like in all three mentioned biblical stories – of a flood of water, i.e., being surrounded by water and disappearing beneath it!
Moreover, the cited catechism in article 1222 also mentions the crossing of the Jordan (Josh 3) as a prefiguration of baptism. In addition to the further crossing through the flood, Abraham's offspring received the promised gift and inheritance – they entered the Promised Land. In it, we see a prefiguration of eternal life, which we enter through baptism.
The Church Fathers also interpreted other Old Testament places as prefigurations of baptism. These, which we have observed, are acknowledged in the liturgy and catechesis of virtually all contemporary church communities.
Another group of such Old Testament texts
Coptic and Ethiopian prayers during the blessing of the baptismal water, besides the already mentioned Old Testament prefigurations of baptism (and also the water in Mara3 and the rock at Horeb), also mention another separate group of prefigurations.4
You, O Lord, at the time of Joshua, son of Nun,
held back the mighty, swollen waters of the Jordan,
who – who could stand before Your face! – accepted
Elijah's sacrifice, drenched with water,
and as a sign of this, You sent down fire from heaven;
You, at the word of Elisha, healed the water from death and
barrenness5
and caused Naaman to be healed of leprosy in the waters of the Jordan.
You can do all things and nothing is impossible for You.
Grant this water a great gift from the Jordan
and let the Holy Spirit descend upon it.
These prefigurations of baptism are also mentioned by St. Gregory of Nyssa and previously by Origen. The relevant homily of St. Gregory is designated for the feast of the Epiphany, just like the aforementioned Coptic and Ethiopian prayers. On this feast, they recalled the event of the Lord's Baptism in the Jordan in the Alexandrian Church. It is understandable that Old Testament texts mentioning the Jordan River or Elijah were frequently referenced for this purpose. After all, concerning John, who baptized Jesus, Jesus later declared that he is the Elijah who was to come as a forerunner of the Messiah (Mt 11:14).
The Church in antiquity considered the event of the Lord's Baptism as the establishment of baptism. St. Gregory of Nyssa, in his homily on the Lord's Baptism, says: "As the only one among rivers, the Jordan received into itself the firstfruits of healing and sanctification, and the baptismal grace burst forth like from one spring (...) throughout the earth."
A very important text that ancient Christian catechesis and prayers like to refer to, which we have already mentioned, is the crossing of the Israelites through the Jordan River under the leadership of Joshua (Josh 3). This event represents a miraculous act of God and an entrance into the Promised Land. Both of these happen in baptism as well.
Prefigurations of baptism in the cycle of stories about the prophet Elijah
During Jesus' time, the Jews expected the coming of Elijah. This is evident also from the Gospels. The disciples asked Jesus: "Why then do the teachers of the Law say that Elijah must come first?" (Mk 9:11), and some people considered Jesus to be Elijah (Mk 6:15 and 8:28). To see the Old Testament prophet Elijah also as a prefiguration of someone who will come when "the time is fulfilled" has its origin in Judaism and not only in Christianity. Thus, the figure of Elijah was widely regarded as a prefiguration.
We Christians are convinced that this prefiguration has already been fulfilled. According to Jesus' words (Mk 11:13), the Elijah who was to come is John the Baptist. But this is not the only interpretation. At the same time, Christ is in the Gospel of St. Luke somewhat similar to Elijah and Elisha. When Jesus encountered the unbelief of his neighbors and acquaintances in the Nazareth synagogue, He pointed out that Elijah was sent to the widow in the pagan city of Zarephath (1 Kings 17:19) and Elisha was commissioned by the Lord to assist only and precisely the Syrian Naaman (2 Kings 5:9). Both Old Testament events could be considered as prefigurations of Jesus' mission to open the Kingdom of God to the Gentiles as well. When the apostles considered calling down fire from heaven (Lk 9:54), they were inspired by Elijah and wanted to do what he did.6 And Elijah's ascension is a prefiguration of Christ's ascension into heaven.7
But let us return to our theme. Ancient Christians saw a prefiguration of baptism primarily in the story from the cycle of Elijah, known as Elijah's Sacrifice (1 Kings 18). This divine judgment on Mount Carmel was understood as a prefiguration of baptism in two ways. Firstly, in terms of the basic meaning of the story: Elijah’s sacrifice completely defeated paganism, and the people confess that the true God is the Lord. Just as baptism means a definitive break with paganism and a confession of true faith in God – the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Elijah's triple pouring of water on the prepared sacrifice in the story, according to the understanding of the Fathers, metaphorically suggests the Holy Trinity. And in the first Christian centuries, baptism was performed by triple immersion of the catechumen or by triple pouring.
In the second respect, this pericope prefigures baptism by how it connects water and fire from heaven.
St. Gregory writes: "Elijah, through that miraculous sacrifice, clearly prefigured the sacrament of baptism that was to come later. Fire descended on the water that had been poured three times, so that it would be clear that where the blessed water is, there is also the Spirit..." Thus, it is a prefiguration of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon those receiving the sacrament of baptism. In early Christian tradition, some ancient texts notably speak of how when the Lord Jesus was baptized in the Jordan, a visible fire also appeared. St. Justin writes: "When Jesus descended into the water, fire began to stir in the Jordan; and when [He] came up from the water, the Holy Spirit descended upon Him in the form of a dove."
Prefigurations of baptism in the stories of Elijah and Elisha, associated with the Jordan
These pericopes are mentioned in baptismal catecheses much more frequently than Elijah's sacrifice. The first of them is Elijah's Crossing of the Jordan (2 Kings 2:7-9):
Fifty prophetic disciples also went and stood at a distance, while the two of them stood by the Jordan. Elijah took his mantle, rolled it up, and struck the water, so that it parted to the two sides, and they both crossed over dry-shod. When they had crossed, Elijah said to Elisha: "Ask what I should do for you before I am taken from you..."
The connection between crossing the Jordan and the subsequent taking of Elijah into heaven is significant here. "Elijah was taken up, but not without water. When he passed through the Jordan, immediately a fiery chariot bore him up to heaven" (St. Cyril of Jerusalem, catechesis on baptism). Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory of Nazianzus also use the expression "heavenly chariot" (Greek: ochēma) for baptism. Its origin is unclear. The Fathers certainly adopted it from somewhere. Neoplatonists referred to the body that "carries the soul" during its ascent to heaven in this way. However, the Greek text of the Old Testament (Septuagint) does not contain the word ochēma, so its use of biblical origin is certainly not at hand. We can suppose that the Fathers associated it with the idea of the fiery chariot that carried Elijah; however, the correctness of this assumption would need to be proven.
Elijah's crossing of the Jordan signifies a new crossing of the Red Sea, here Elijah is like a second Moses. But the specific and new aspect here is the theme of ascension to heaven. Elijah crossed the Jordan and was taken up to heaven. Thus, he prefigures Christ, who passed through death and then ascended to heaven. And the Christian, through baptism, passes through the water and is united with Christ, so that he may one day be like Him in the ascent to heaven.
The most frequently cited pericope, however, describes the miraculous rising of the axe from the Jordan (2 Kings 6:1-7 – Czech Ecumenical Translation):
The prophetic disciples said to Elisha: "Behold, the place where we sit before you is too cramped for us. Let us go to the Jordan, and each of us take from there a beam and make a place where we may sit." He said: "Go!" But one of them said: "Please be so kind and come with your servants." He answered: "I will go." And he went with them. When they came to the Jordan, they began to cut down trees. As one was felling a tree, the iron axe head fell into the water. He cried out and said: "Oh, my lord, it was borrowed!" The man of God asked: "Where did it fall?" When he showed him the place, Elisha cut a stick, threw it in there, and the iron floated. Then he said: "Catch it!" He reached out his hand and took it.
Here we come into contact with another group of texts that the ancient Christian tradition chose from the Old Testament because they feature water and wood together. These pericopes were understood as prefigurations of baptism because in baptism the power of Christ’s cross works through water.8
St. Justin writes: "Elisha threw a piece of wood into the Jordan, and in this way, he withdrew the iron of the axe... Just as our Christ purchased us from the gravest sins through His crucifixion on the wood and baptism in the water."
The connection of this event with baptism lies, therefore, in the fact that just as the rising of the axe, so baptism is a mighty act of God, a miracle, and that in both, water and wood are significant. The Church Father Didymus goes into a more detailed interpretation: "Elisha, the man of God, who turned to his disciples [in search of the axe] with the question: 'Where did it fall?' is the image of the Lord, who came to [the first] people with the question: 'Adam, where are you?' [The heavy] iron, which sank into the dark abyss, denotes the greatness of human nature that turned away from the light. The piece of wood thrown where the lost object lay symbolizes the glorious [Lord's] cross. The Jordan is baptism, which gives immortality. For in the Jordan, He who created the Jordan was baptized for us. And finally, the fact that the iron floated up from the water and returned to the one who lost it means that through baptism we ascend to heavenly greatness and regain both grace and our true home."
Didymus's interpretation of the pericope is a "pure allegory". But even the more sober St. Ambrose considers the story of the axe to be a prefiguration of baptism, based on the fact that it shows God's power over natural elements. Moreover, the role of the prophet Elisha in the story suggests that humans are not capable of saving themselves [from the state of sin] – without the intervention of God's power. Because in this story the Jordan and wood appear, this miracle has become a favored prefiguration of baptism.
The third miracle related to the Jordan is the healing of Naaman from Syria, to whom the prophet Elisha commanded to wash himself seven times in the Jordan (2 Kings 5:9-14).
Naaman, the commander of the army of the Aramean king, came with his horses and chariots and stopped at the door of Elisha's house. Elisha sent a messenger to him saying: "Go, wash in the Jordan seven times, and your body will be restored; go and you will be clean!" Naaman became angry and went away saying: "Indeed, I said to myself, 'He will surely come out to me and stand and call on the name of the Lord his God, and wave his hand over the place and heal the leper. Are not the Abana and Parpar, the rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel? Could I not wash in them and be clean?'"
He turned and went away in rage. But his servants approached him and said: "My father, if the prophet had commanded you to do something great, would you not have done it? How much more, when he says to you, 'Wash, and be clean?'" So he went down and dipped seven times in the Jordan according to the word of the man of God, and his flesh was restored like the flesh of a little child, and he was clean.
This Old Testament text leads us to view baptism from a new perspective, namely as cleansing. Naaman was cleansed from leprosy by bathing in the Jordan. The catechumens are cleansed from sin through baptism. But there is yet another important aspect: this pericope symbolizes the calling of the Gentiles to participate in the new people of God.
According to Origen's commentary on this scripture, the prefiguration of Christ is the river Jordan itself. Naaman's anger at being sent to wash himself specifically in the Jordan is explained by Origen: "because he did not understand the great mystery of the Jordan. In truth, no one is good, but one, God the Father, and so among rivers, none is good, only the Jordan, which can free from leprosy him who purifies his soul in Jesus by faith." For Origen, "to dip in the Jordan" means "to dip in Christ". Jesus, the Word of the Father, is that river, which is "for the joy of the city of God" (Ps 46:5). Just as this river makes known the presence of God, so the Father makes Himself known in the Son. Origen continues:
Therefore, from those who undergo the baptism in this River,
the Egyptian disgrace is removed,
they are enabled to be raised to heaven,
they are cleansed from the most dreadful leprosy
and are able to receive the Holy Spirit.
These are clear references to: the crossing of the Jordan under Joshua, Elijah's crossing of the Jordan, and the healing of Naaman.
The cleansing of the Gentile Naaman from leprosy is mentioned by the Lord Jesus when He preaches in the Nazareth synagogue. Origen says about this: "Know then that those who are washed through the spiritual Elisha, our Lord and Redeemer, are cleansed from the filth of the letter. For it is said to you: 'Arise and wash in the Jordan!' (...) Naaman rose and went and was cleansed (...) And his flesh was like the flesh of a child. Who is this child? The one who is born in the bath of new birth."
Didymus raises two new features in interpreting this pericope: the fact that Naaman was a Gentile suggests the universality of baptism (it will be offered to everyone willing to convert, regardless of which nation they belong to) and the sevenfold dipping in the Jordan reminds him of the Holy Spirit and His seven gifts.
In the eyes of ancient Christians, the Jordan has a special significance. We have already said: the baptism of the Lord, according to their belief, sanctified the waters of the Jordan and established baptism. And from the moment of Jesus’ baptism, every baptismal water receives Christ’s grace. Naaman's bath in the Jordan is viewed as a prefiguration of this event. We can quote St. Gregory of Nyssa again: "As the only one among [all streams and] rivers, the Jordan received into itself the first fruits of healing and sanctification, and the baptismal grace burst forth like from one spring (...) throughout the land." According to St. Gregory, therefore, the Jordan River prefigures both baptism and the institution of baptism.
From St. Ambrose’s catecheses, it is evident that this pericope generally belonged to the content of fundamental catechesis. Naaman is clearly a prefiguration of future salvation also for the Gentiles.
What does this imply for us?
The allegorical interpretation of Scripture comes alive before us. It was used in the church until the Middle Ages. Undoubtedly, it was often found foolishly and incorrectly. But when used sensitively, it has the power to engage us with the biblical texts anew, even if in a different way. To connect even "marginal" pericopes of Scripture with the very core of the proclamation of salvation. To show the Gospel from another perspective. And to animate and let speak the texts that we would otherwise pay much less attention to, in a poetic symbolic language about the most essential things between God and us.
Thus, against the backdrop of Old Testament texts, baptism emerges before our spiritual eyes distinctly as new creation, destruction of sin, salvation from bondage, stepping into freedom, breaking with paganism, confession of true faith, outpouring of the Spirit, elevation to heaven, salvific touch of the Cross, miracle, cleansing from a destructive plague, calling of the Gentiles to accept salvation.
Whether we have an enthusiastic or a reserved relationship to the allegorical interpretation of Scripture, it reminds us that baptism is a great and wonderful mystery, set in the broad context of the history of salvation. Its content can never be fully articulated. But every successful articulation of the content of the mystery of baptism, even if only partial, is for us a source of joy and strengthens our love for Christ and our determination to follow Him.
